Animal Behavior Lab

ABSTRACT:

In this lab, we are experimenting to find out the behavior of pill bugs. We created two experiments. One tested for the reaction of pill bugs to wet and dry areas. The other tested for the reaction of pill bugs to areas with and without honey. We originally thought that since pill bugs are found in wet places in nature, the pill bugs would be drawn to the wet chamber. We also originally thought that since honey can be a food source, the pill bugs would be drawn to the honey chamber. We were able to determine if our hypothesis was correct by recording the number of pill bugs in each chamber for a set period of time.

INTRODUCTION:

Behavior is an animal's response to sensory (internal or external) input. There are two basic types of behavior, learned and inherited/innate. The study of animal behavior is called ethology. The proximate questions about behavior are questions that focus on the environmental stimuli that trigger a certain behavior. These questions are also known as the "How" questions. Ultimate questions are ones that ask about the evolutionary significance of the certain behavior. Theres questions are also knows as the "Why" questions. If a bird is singing, a proximate question could be, How can the bird know when is the right time to sing? An ultimate question could be, Does the singing have evolutionary benefits e.g. is it able to attract mates to continue the bloodline of the bird? Fixed action patterns are a pattern or sequence of unlearned behavior acts that is unable to change once started and is usually carried to the end or completion. An example of fixed action patterns are mating dances of birds. Imprinting is a type of behavior that includes innate and learning components and is usually irreversible. Imprinting has a sensitive period meaning that there is a limited phase in an animal's development when particular behaviors can be understood and learned. A proximate question for imprinting in young geese is, What specific actions does the mother goose do in order to trigger imprinting? An ultimate question is, Does imprinting help the young geese learn vital skills which will help them succeed in their lives? Orientation behaviors help move the animal into its most desirable environment. In taxis, the animal goes toward or away from a stimulus. The stimulus is usually light, heat, moisture, sound, or chemicals. Kinesis is the movement that does not result in the orientation with respect to the stimulus and is random. If an animal responds to loud noises by coming towards it, then that is taxis. If it responds by moving all over the place and by random movements, then that is kinesis. Classical conditioning is a type of associated learning where arbitrary stimulus is associated with a reward of punishment. Operant conditioning is a type of associated learning where an animal learns to associate one of its behaviors with a reward or punishment.

HYPOTHESIS:

If the 10 pill bugs are placed in two chambers, one wet and one dry, then they will move into the wet chamber over time in a taxis manner because in nature pill bugs are usually found in wet habitats. If the 10 pill bugs are placed in two chambers, one with honey and one with nothing, then the pill bugs will also move in a taxis manner to the honey chamber because honey contains sugar and other sources of food and nutrients. In our experiment the independent variable would be the time that the pill bugs stay in the chambers. The dependent variable would be the number of pill bugs in each different chamber.

MATERIALS:

- 2 containers each with 2 attached chambers
- 4 pieces of filter paper
- 10 pill bugs
- beaker containing water
- beaker containing honey
- brush

PROCEDURE:

1. Use a container with 2 chambers attached in it. Put filter paper in each chamber. Put water in one chamber and leave the other alone as a control.

2. Gently brush pill bugs into chambers and record the number of pill bugs in each chamber.

3. Cover the the chambers to make them dark. After 30 seconds, record the number of pill bugs in each chamber.

4. Keep recording the number until 7 minutes are up. Then take the pill bugs out and clean up.

5. For the honey experiment, use the same steps above but instead of water use honey.

RESULTS:

Time (Minutes)	# of pill bugs in wet chamber	# of pill bugs in control chamber
0	5	5
0.5	4	6
1	5	5
1.5	6	4
2	6	4
2.5	6	4
3	5	5
3.5	3	7
4	5	5
4.5	5	5
5	5	5
5.5	6	4
6	7	3
6.5	7	3
7	7	3

Time (Minutes)	# in honey chamber	# in control chamber
0	4	6
0.5	4	6
1	4	6
1.5	5	5
2	4	6
2.5	5	5
3	5	5
3.5	5	5
4	5	5
4.5	5	5
5	5	5
5.5	5	5
6	6	4
6.5	6	4
7	5	5

CONCLUSION:

In the first experiment with the wet and dry chambers, at first it seems that the pill bugs are moving around in a kinesis manner. However over time majority of the pill bugs eventually move towards the stimulus, the water. If we timed the pill bugs for longer, they probably would all move towards the water eventually because their natural habitat is wet as well. For the second experiment with the honey, the pill bugs do not show a preference to either chamber. They move in a kinesis manner. For a long time there is an equal amount of pill bugs in each chamber. This concludes that even though honey may be a source of nutrients to some animals, it does not have a direct effect on pill bugs. But, if we had timed longer, we might have seen a pattern or a preference. One source of error is that we might have spilled a drop of water into the control or dry chamber during the honey experiment, so the pill bugs may have been drawn to that.  

Hardy Weinberg!

The Hardy Weinberg equation is the mathematical equation used to calculate the genetic variation of a population at equilibrium. The equation starts off with p^2 + 2pq + q^2. p + q also equals 1. P squared represents the frequency of the homozygous dominant allele, Two p q represents the frequency of the heterozygous allele, and q squared represents the frequency of the homozygous recessive allele. The two men who came up with this were Godfrey Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg. They also stated that evolution in a population would not occur if the following happen: mutation does not occur, natural selection does not occur, the population is infinitely large, all members of the population breed, all mating is totally random, everyone produces the same number of offspring, and there is no migration in or out of the population. Going back to the equation, here is an example of a problem:

1. You have sampled a population in which you know that the percentage of the homozygous recessive genotype (aa) is 36%. Using that 36%, calculate the following:
1. The frequency of the "aa" genotype.
2. The frequency of the "a" allele.
3. The frequency of the "A" allele.
4. The frequencies of the genotypes "AA" and "Aa."

The frequency of the aa is already mentioned in the problem, 36%. To find B, firs square root .36. The answer is .6. So the frequency is 60%. For C, since q+p=1, and q=.6 then p=.4. So 40%. For D, .4 squared is .16 so the frequency of the AA is 16% and 2pq is equal to 2 times .4 times .6 so .48 or 48%.

Here is a good video about this:

Hardy Weinberg Video

Immune System Quiz

The Questions:

1. The innate immune system is also known as the non-specific immune system. The cells of the non-specific system recognize and respond to the pathogens in a generic way, but do not have long-lasting immunity to the host. The non-specific system recruits immune cells to the site of the infection, by the production of chemical factors, such as specialized chemical mediators called cytokines. It activates the complement cascade which identifies bacteria, activates cells, and promotes the clearance of dead cells or antibody complexes. It uses the process of antigen presentation to activate the adaptive immune system. It uses white blood cells to identify and remove foreign substances. It also acts as a chemical and physical barrier to infectious diseases. Innate immunity also includes external barriers of the body, which help prevent diseases from coming into the body.

2. There are two types lymphocytes (white blood cells): B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. Lymphocytes start out in the bone marrow. If they stay in the bone marrow and mature there, they are B cells. If they leave for the thymus gland, they mature into T cells. Many kinds of cells work together and respond to foreign substances that invade the body (antigens.) These specific cells trigger B cells to produce antibodies, which are specialized proteins that attach onto specific antigens. Some T cells create chemicals for memory cells. This helps the body in defense against the same disease in the future. Other T cells help destroy antigens.

3. B and T cells produce memory cells. These specific cells hold information about previous threats and diseases to the body. All this gives the system a memory, meaning that the system will have a quicker and more powerful response to the disease in the future. This also helps our bodies to develop immunities, meaning that the system knows what the antigens already is and can stop new infections.

4. Body cells carry distinctive molecules that help identify it as itself. An antigen shows that it is foreign by characteristic shapes (or receptors) called epitopes, which stick out from the surface. Because the body does not recognize these receptors, the immune system will attack it. Other cells with the same "self"markers, are not affected by the immune system.

Bibliography for LH Hormone Podcast

Websites used:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luteinizing_hormone#Structure
http://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/follicle-stimulating-hormone-and-luteinizing-hormone-intramuscular-route-subcutaneous-route/description/drg-20062932
http://www.yourhormones.info/hormones/luteinising_hormone.aspx
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luteinizing_hormone/choriogonadotropin_receptor
http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/hypopit/lhfsh.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_feedback

LH Hormone Podcast

LH Hormone Podcast

Transcript for LH Hormone Podcast

          Luteinizing hormone is a hormone produced by gonadotrophic cells in the anterior pituitary gland. In females, if there is a rise in levels of the LH hormone, ovulation will be triggered and corpus luteum is developed. It also helps increase the amount of estrogen produced by follicle cells. LH sometimes goes together with the hormone FSH. A chemical pathway is a series of interconnected reactions that share common mechanisms, and each reaction is dependent on a specific precursor, such as, a chemical, an enzyme, or the transfer of energy. LH is a heterodimer glycoprotein, meaning that each monomeric unit is a glycoprotein molecule, and one alpha and one beta subunit make a full functioning protein. The structure of LH is similar to the structure of other glycoprotein hormones, such as, Follicle-stimulating hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and human chorionic gonadotropin. Different compositions of the oligosaccharides in LH affect the bioactivity and speed of degradation of the hormone. LH is water soluble, meaning that it does not readily pass through the lipid-rich plasma membrane that surrounds the target cell. It does, however, combine with receptors on the surface of the target cell. The receptors are glycoprotein complexes. A cellular receptor that interacts with LH is the luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor, or LHCGR. It is a trans-membrane receptor mostly found in the ovary and testis. The principal regulator of LH secretion is gonadotropin-releasing hormone, or GnRH. It is synthesized and secreted from hypothalamic neurons, and bind to receptors on gonadotrophs. It is necessary for it to be active during reproduction for proper hormonal functioning.  LH runs off of a negative feedback loop, meaning that the result of the process influences the operation of the process in a way that reduces changes.

Different amounts of glucose affect on Cell Respiration (yeast lab)

Different amounts of glucose affect on Cell Respiration

Abstract:

In this lab, we tested to see what would happen with different substances with different amounts of glucose and their affect on cell respiration. In the control, for the carbohydrate, we used sugar. The different variables we used were honey, flour, and potato starch. We suspected that since honey and sugar have more glucose, the amount of carbon dioxide produced would be higher.

Introduction:

Cell respiration is a process that produces ATP (energy.) In cell respiration, the cells use oxygen to break down glucose, or sugar, and create ATP. Without oxygen, cell respiration cannot occur. There are three main steps to cell respiration: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Cell respiration takes place in the mitochondria. In glycolysis, the 6-carbon sugar is broken down into 2 molecules of a 3-carbon molecule called pyruvate. In this step, 2 ATP molecules and 2 NADH molecules are gained. Then the pyruvate is transported into the mitochondria and loses carbon dioxide to form acetyl-CoA. In the Krebs cycle, acetyl-CoA is oxidized to carbon dioxide and a chemical energy is released and captured in the forms of NADH, FADH2, and ATP. Then oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis is the next step. The electron transport chain in the mitochondria allows the release of chemical energy stored in reduced NAD+ and reduced FAD. Then the energy released is captured in the form of ATP. The electron transport chain is made up of proteins and other molecules in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Electron carriers donate electrons to the electron transport chain, which powers ATP synthesis from oxidative phosphorylation. Since yeast is a fungus, it also under-goes cell respiration. In our yeast lab, we have a control made up of 1g of carbohydrates (sugar), 35 mL of warm water, 1g of salt, and 1g of yeast. If we change the different carbohydrates and make those our variables, how will it affect the cell respiration of the yeast? Does the amount of glucose in them affect cell respiration? In our lab we used three variables instead of sugar. We used honey, flour, and potato starch. I hypothesize that the control and the honey will produce more carbon dioxide than the flour and the potato starch because they have more glucose.

 Materials:

-Test tubes attached to syringes

- Beakers

-Sugar

-Honey

-Flour

-Potato starch

- Water

- Salt

- Yeast

- Weighing scale

Procedure:

To keep the experiment accurate, we must make the control, the one with the honey, the one with the flour, and the one with the potato starch at the same time. To make the control you need 1g of sugar, 35mL of warm water, 1g of salt, and 1g of yeast. Once you have all the ingredients you have to put them into the test tube and shake. Use the same materials for the others except change the carbohydrate. So instead of 1g of sugar, use 1g of honey, 1g of flour, and 1g of potato starch. Once the substances are in the test tubes, push the syringe down to see the starting point of the carbon dioxide. After 5 minutes, 7 minutes, 8 minutes, 9 minutes, and 10 minutes push the syringe and see the new level of carbon dioxide.

Results:

As expected the control and the honey produced the most carbon dioxide. The baseline for the control is 2 mL, 5 minutes was 2 mL, 7 minutes was 3 mL, 8 minutes was 5.3 mL, 9 minutes was 7 mL, and 10 minutes was 8 mL. The baseline for the honey was 1.9 ml, 5 minutes was 3 ml, 7 minutes was 4.5 ml, 8 minutes was 5.3 ml, 9 minutes was 6.2 ml, and 10 minutes was 7.6 ml. The baseline for the flour was 2 ml, 5 minutes was 2 ml, 7 minutes was 2 ml, 8 minutes was 2 ml, 9 minutes was 2 ml, and 10 minutes was 2 ml. the baseline for potato starch was 1.6 ml, 5 minutes was 2 ml, and since the cap of the test tube was not properly sealed, we could not get any more data.

Conclusion:

Sugar and honey are both disaccharides and both contain a lot of glucose, and therefore they both produced a lot of carbon dioxide due to cell respiration. Flour is a starch and a polysaccharide so it has less glucose than the honey and the sugar. If we had timed the flour longer, then we would see a gradual rise in the level of carbon dioxide. Potato starch is also a polysaccharide and contains less glucose, and if there were no errors, and if we had more time, we would see a gradual rise in the level of carbon dioxide as well.